Long-chain saturated fatty acid species are not toxic to human pancreatic β-cells and may offer protection against pro-inflammatory cytokine induced β-cell death

Weight problems is a significant danger issue for sort 2 diabetes (T2D) though the causal hyperlinks stay unclear. A function shared by each circumstances nonetheless is systemic irritation and raised ranges of circulating fatty acids (FFA). It’s broadly believed that in overweight people genetically liable to T2D, elevated ranges of plasma FFA might contribute in the direction of the dying and dysfunction of insulin-producing pancreatic β-cells in a means of (gluco)lipotoxicity.

In assist of this, in vitro research have proven persistently that long-chain saturated fatty acids (LC-SFA) are poisonous to rodent β-cells throughout persistent publicity (> 24 h). Conversely, shorter chain SFA and unsaturated species are nicely tolerated, suggesting that toxicity depends on carbon chain size and/or double bond configuration. Regardless of the wealth of proof implicating lipotoxicity as a method of β-cell dying in rodents, the proof {that a} comparable course of happens in people is far much less substantial. Subsequently, the current examine has evaluated the results of persistent publicity to fatty acids of various chain size and diploma of saturation, on the viability of human β-cells in tradition.

We now have additionally studied the results of a mix of fatty acids and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Strikingly, we discover that LC-FFA don’t readily promote the demise of human β-cells and that they might even supply a measure of safety towards the poisonous results of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Subsequently, these findings indicate {that a} mannequin wherein elevated circulating LC-FFA play a direct function in mediating β-cell dysfunction and dying in people, could also be overly simplistic.

Enriching for human acute myeloid leukemia stem cells utilizing reactive oxygen species-based cell sorting

Isolation of leukemia stem cells presents a problem as a result of heterogeneity of the immunophenotypic markers generally used to establish blood stem cells. A number of research have reported that relative ranges of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can be utilized to complement for stem cell populations, suggesting a possible different to floor antigen-based strategies.

Right here, we describe a protocol to complement for stem cells from human acute myeloid leukemia specimens utilizing relative ranges of ROS. This protocol offers constant enrichment of leukemia stem cells. For full particulars on the use and execution of this protocol, please confer with Lagadinou et al. (2013) and Pei et al. (2018).

Substrate Stiffness, Cell Anisotropy, and Cell–Cell Contact Contribute to Enhanced Structural and Calcium Dealing with Properties of Human Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes

Human pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hPSC-CMs) will be utilized to know the mechanisms underlying the event and development of coronary heart illness, in addition to to develop higher interventions and coverings for this illness. Nonetheless, these cells are structurally and functionally immature, which undermines a few of their adequacy in modeling grownup coronary heart tissue.

Earlier research with immature cardiomyocytes have proven that altering substrate stiffness, cell anisotropy, and/or cell-cell contact can improve the contractile and structural maturation of hPSC-CMs. On this examine, the structural and calcium dealing with properties of human embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hESC-CMs) have been enhanced by publicity to a downselected mixture of those three maturation stimuli. First, hESC-CMs have been seeded onto substrates composed of two business formulations of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), Sylgard 184 and Sylgard 527, whose stiffness ranged from 5 kPa to 101 kPa. Upon analyzing the morphological and calcium transient properties of those cells, it was concluded {that a} 21 kPa substrate yielded cells with the best diploma of maturation.

Subsequent, these PDMS substrates have been microcontact-printed with laminin to pressure the classy cells into rod-shaped geometries utilizing line patterns that have been 12, 18, or 24 μm in width. We discovered that cells on the 18 and 24 μm sample widths had structural and useful properties that have been superior to these on the 12 μm sample.

The hESC-CMs have been then seeded onto these line-stamped surfaces at a density of 500 000 cells per 25-mm-diameter substrate, to allow the formation of cell-cell contacts at their distal ends. We found that this mixture of tradition circumstances resulted in cells that have been extra structurally and functionally mature than those who have been solely uncovered to at least one or two stimuli. Our outcomes recommend that downselecting a mix of mechanobiological stimuli may show to be an efficient technique of maturing hPSC-CMs in vitro.

Laser-Primarily based Hybrid Manufacturing of Endosseous Implants: Optimized Titanium Surfaces for Enhancing Osteogenic Differentiation of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Additive manufacturing (AM) is turning into more and more vital within the orthopedic and dental sectors thanks to 2 main benefits: the potential of customized manufacturing and the combination of advanced buildings. Nonetheless, at smaller scales, floor circumstances of AM merchandise are usually not mastered. Quite a few non-fused powder particles give rise to roughness values (Sa) higher than 10 μm, thus limiting biomedical purposes for the reason that floor roughness of, e.g., metallic implants performs a significant function within the high quality and charge of osseointegration.

On this examine, an progressive hybrid machine combining AM and a femtosecond laser (FS) was used to acquire Ti6Al4V elements with biofunctional surfaces. In the course of the manufacturing course of, the FS laser beam “neatly” ablates the floor, leaving in its path nanostructures created by the laser/matter interplay. This step decreases the Sa from 11 to four μm and will increase the floor wettability.

The conduct of human mesenchymal stem cells was evaluated on these new AM+FS surfaces and in contrast with that on AM surfaces and likewise on polished surfaces. The variety of cells hooked up 24 h after plating is equal on all surfaces, however cell spreading is greater on AM+FS surfaces in contrast with their AM counterparts. In the long term (days 7 and 14), fibronectin and collagen synthesis improve on AM+FS surfaces versus AM alone.

Alkaline phosphatase exercise, osteocalcin manufacturing, and mineralization, markers of osteogenic differentiation, are considerably decrease on uncooked AM surfaces, whereas on the AM+FS specimens they show a degree equal to that on the polished floor. Total, these outcomes point out that utilizing an FS laser beam through the fabrication of AM elements optimizes floor morphology to favor osteoblastic differentiation.

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (APC)
MBS6282862-5x02mL	MyBiosource	5x0.2mL	EUR 4250

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (FITC)
MBS6282864-02mL	MyBiosource	0.2mL	EUR 980

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (FITC)
MBS6282864-5x02mL	MyBiosource	5x0.2mL	EUR 4250

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (Biotin)
MBS6282863-02mL	MyBiosource	0.2mL	EUR 980

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (Biotin)
MBS6282863-5x02mL	MyBiosource	5x0.2mL	EUR 4250

CD1B (GFP-tagged) - Human CD1b molecule (CD1B)
RG219131	Origene Technologies GmbH	10 µg	Ask for price

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 405)
MBS6282866-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 980

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 405)
MBS6282866-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 4250

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 490)
MBS6282867-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 980

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 490)
MBS6282867-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 4250

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 550)
MBS6282868-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 980

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 550)
MBS6282868-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 4250

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 650)
MBS6282869-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 980

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 650)
MBS6282869-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 4250

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 750)
MBS6282870-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 980

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 750)
MBS6282870-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 4250

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (AP)
MBS6130433-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1(mL	EUR 875

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (AP)
MBS6130433-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3800

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (AP)
MBS6372872-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 920

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (AP)
MBS6372872-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3990

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (PE)
MBS6372882-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 920

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (PE)
MBS6372882-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3990

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (PE)
MBS6156948-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1(mL	EUR 875

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (PE)
MBS6156948-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3800

CD1B (Myc-DDK-tagged)-Human CD1b molecule (CD1B)
RC219131	Origene Technologies GmbH	10 µg	Ask for price

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) APC
MBS6135736-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1(mL	EUR 875

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) APC
MBS6135736-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3800

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) APC
MBS6372873-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 920

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) APC
MBS6372873-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3990

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (HRP)
MBS6372876-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 920

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (HRP)
MBS6372876-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3990

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (HRP)
MBS6151645-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1(mL	EUR 875

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (HRP)
MBS6151645-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3800

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (FITC)
MBS6372875-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 920

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (FITC)
MBS6372875-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3990

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (FITC)
MBS6146342-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1(mL	EUR 875

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (FITC)
MBS6146342-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3800

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (Azide free) (HRP)
MBS6282865-02mL	MyBiosource	0.2mL	EUR 980

CD1B, NT (CD1B, T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (Azide free) (HRP)
MBS6282865-5x02mL	MyBiosource	5x0.2mL	EUR 4250

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (Biotin)
MBS6141039-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1(mL	EUR 875

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (Biotin)
MBS6141039-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3800

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (Biotin)
MBS6372874-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 920

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (Biotin)
MBS6372874-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3990

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 405)
MBS6372877-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 920

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 405)
MBS6372877-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3990

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 490)
MBS6372878-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 920

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 490)
MBS6372878-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3990

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 550)
MBS6372879-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 920

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 550)
MBS6372879-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3990

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 650)
MBS6372880-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 920

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 650)
MBS6372880-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3990

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 750)
MBS6372881-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 920

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 750)
MBS6372881-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3990

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 490)
MBS6199971-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1(mL	EUR 875

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 490)
MBS6199971-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3800

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 550)
MBS6210646-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1(mL	EUR 875

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 550)
MBS6210646-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3800

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 405)
MBS6189296-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1(mL	EUR 875

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 405)
MBS6189296-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3800

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 650)
MBS6221321-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1(mL	EUR 875

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 650)
MBS6221321-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3800

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 750)
MBS6231996-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1(mL	EUR 875

CD1B (T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b, CD1b) (MaxLight 750)
MBS6231996-5x01mL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mL	EUR 3800

CD1B
CSB-CL004890HU	Cusabio	10 μg plasmid + 200μl Glycerol	Ask for price

CD1B
PR27289	Neuromics	2 ug	EUR 229.2

CD1B
pro-1267	ProSpec Tany	2µg	EUR 60
Description: Recombinant Human CD1B

CD1B
PR27289-B	Neuromics	each	EUR 184.5

CD1B
MBS9127751-002mL	MyBiosource	0.02mL	EUR 200

CD1B
MBS9127751-005mL	MyBiosource	0.05mL	EUR 255

CD1B
MBS9127751-01mL	MyBiosource	0.1mL	EUR 345

CD1B
MBS9127751-02mL	MyBiosource	0.2mL	EUR 545

CD1B
MBS9127751-5x02mL	MyBiosource	5x0.2mL	EUR 2265

CD1b
MBS438097-002mgWithBSAAzideat02mgmL	MyBiosource	0.02mg(WithBSA&Azideat0.2mg/mL)	EUR 230

CD1b
MBS438097-01mgWithBSAAzideat02mgmL	MyBiosource	0.1mg(WithBSA&Azideat0.2mg/mL)	EUR 405

CD1b
MBS438097-01mgWithoutBSAAzideat1mgmL	MyBiosource	0.1mg(WithoutBSA&Azideat1mg/mL)	EUR 405

CD1b
MBS438097-5x01mgWithBSAAzideat02mgmL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mg(WithBSA&Azideat0.2mg/mL)	EUR 1725

CD1b
MBS438097-5x01mgWithoutBSAAzideat1mgmL	MyBiosource	5x0.1mg(WithoutBSA&Azideat1mg/mL)	EUR 1725

CD1B siRNA
20-abx910943	Abbexa	Ask for price Ask for price	15 nmol 30 nmol

T-Cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Protein
20-abx263315	Abbexa	Ask for price Ask for price Ask for price	100 ug 10 ug 2 µg

T-Cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Protein
abx263315-10mg	Abbexa	10 mg	EUR 325

T-Cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Protein
abx263315-25mg	Abbexa	25 mg	EUR 1600

T-Cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Protein
abx263315-5mg	Abbexa	5 mg	EUR 225

T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Antibody
abx139084-01mg	Abbexa	0.1 mg	EUR 427.2

T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Antibody
20-abx006357	Abbexa	Ask for price Ask for price Ask for price Ask for price	100 ul 200 ul 20 ul 50 ul

T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Antibody
abx030324-400ul	Abbexa	400 ul	EUR 627.6

T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Antibody
abx030324-80l	Abbexa	80 µl	EUR 343.2

T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Antibody
20-abx009480	Abbexa	Ask for price Ask for price Ask for price	100 ul 200 ul 30 ul

T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Antibody
20-abx320708	Abbexa	Ask for price Ask for price	100 ul 50 ul

Rabbit polyclonal antibody to CD1B (CD1B molecule)
TA308296	Origene Technologies GmbH	100 µl	Ask for price

T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Antibody
abx030324-400l	Abbexa	400 µl	EUR 518.75

T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Antibody
abx139084-100l	Abbexa	100 µl	EUR 275

T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Antibody
abx139084-500l	Abbexa	500 µl	Ask for price

T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Antibody
abx320708-100l	Abbexa	100 µl	EUR 350

T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Antibody
abx320708-50l	Abbexa	50 µl	EUR 250

T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Antibody
abx006357-100g	Abbexa	100 µg	EUR 275

T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Antibody
abx006357-10g	Abbexa	10 µg	EUR 175

T-cell Surface Glycoprotein CD1b (CD1B) Antibody
abx006357-200g	Abbexa	200 µg	EUR 400

CD1b antibody
10R-6324	Fitzgerald	100 ug	EUR 260
Description: Mouse monoclonal CD1b antibody

CD1B antibody
22413	SAB	100ul	EUR 479

CD1B antibody
22413-100ul	SAB	100ul	EUR 468

CD1B Antibody
46433	SAB	100ul	EUR 319

CD1B Antibody
46433-100ul	SAB	100ul	EUR 302.4

CD1B Antibody
E046433	EnoGene	100μg/100μl	EUR 255
Description: Available in various conjugation types.

CD1B Antibody
E10-31418	EnoGene	100ul	EUR 225
Description: Available in various conjugation types.

CD1B Antibody
E10-31419	EnoGene	100ul	EUR 225
Description: Available in various conjugation types.

CD1B Antibody
E19-10150-1	EnoGene	50ug/50ul	EUR 145
Description: Available in various conjugation types.

CD1B Antibody
E19-10150-2	EnoGene	100ug/100ul	EUR 225
Description: Available in various conjugation types.

CD1B Antibody
DF10150	Affbiotech	200ul	EUR 420

CD1B Antibody
DF10150-100ul	Affinity Biosciences	100ul	EUR 280

CD1B Antibody
DF10150-200ul	Affinity Biosciences	200ul	EUR 350

CD1B Antibody
E309888	EnoGene	100ug/200ul	EUR 295
Description: Available in various conjugation types.

CD1B antibody
70R-13508	Fitzgerald	100 ul	EUR 550
Description: Affinity purified Rabbit polyclonal CD1B antibody

CD1b antibody
70R-49494	Fitzgerald	100 ul	EUR 242
Description: Purified Polyclonal CD1b antibody

CD1B Antibody
1-CSB-PA004890ESR2HU	Cusabio	Ask for price Ask for price	100ul 50ul
Description: A polyclonal antibody against CD1B. Recognizes CD1B from Human. This antibody is Unconjugated. Tested in the following application: ELISA, IHC; Recommended dilution: IHC:1:20-1:200

CD1b Antibody
F46544-0.08ML	NSJ Bioreagents	0.08 ml	EUR 140.25
Description: This gene encodes a member of the CD1 family of transmembrane glycoproteins, which are structurally related to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins and form heterodimers with beta-2-microglobulin. The CD1 proteins mediate the presentation of primarily lipid and glycolipid antigens of self or microbial origin to T cells. The human genome contains five CD1 family genes organized in a cluster on chromosome 1. The CD1 family members are thought to differ in their cellular localization and specificity for particular lipid ligands. The protein encoded by this gene localizes to late endosomes and lysosomes via a tyrosine-based motif in the cytoplasmic tail, and requires vesicular acidification to bind lipid antigens. [provided by RefSeq].

CD1b Antibody
F46544-0.4ML	NSJ Bioreagents	0.4 ml	EUR 322.15
Description: This gene encodes a member of the CD1 family of transmembrane glycoproteins, which are structurally related to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins and form heterodimers with beta-2-microglobulin. The CD1 proteins mediate the presentation of primarily lipid and glycolipid antigens of self or microbial origin to T cells. The human genome contains five CD1 family genes organized in a cluster on chromosome 1. The CD1 family members are thought to differ in their cellular localization and specificity for particular lipid ligands. The protein encoded by this gene localizes to late endosomes and lysosomes via a tyrosine-based motif in the cytoplasmic tail, and requires vesicular acidification to bind lipid antigens. [provided by RefSeq].

This new hybrid machine may make it attainable to provide AM implants with useful surfaces straight on the finish of AM, thereby limiting their post-treatments.